Felicia McCaw
Social Psychology
Describe the major theories within the field of social psychology.
•Attribution Theory- The process by which people use information to make inferences about the causes of behavior or events.
•Balance Theory – A theory that people desire cognitive consistency or balance in their thoughts, feelings, and social relationships.
•Bystander Intervention Model – A theory that whether bystanders intervene in an emergency is a function of a five-step decision-making process.
•Cognitive Dissonance - A feeling of discomfort caused by performing an action that is inconsistent with one’s attitudes.
•Cognitive-Neoassociationist Model – A theory of impulsive aggression that aversive events produce negative affect, which stimulates the inclination to aggress.
•Control Theory of Self-Regulation - A contending that, through self-awareness, people compare their behavior to a standard, and if there is a discrepancy, they work to reduce it.
•Distraction-Conflict Theory – According to the distraction conflict theory, when one is working on a task, the presence of others or the presence of novel stimuli is distracting. This distraction produces a conflict between paying attention to the task and paying attention to these stimuli. This conflict causes arousal to increase, which leads to the social facilitation effects previously discussed.
•Dual-Process Theories - Theories of social cognition that describe two basic ways of thinking about social stimuli, one involving automatic, effortless thinking and the other involving more deliberate, effortful thinking.
•Elaboration Likelihood Model - A theory that persuasive messages can cause attitude change in two ways, each differing in the amount of cognitive effort or elaboration it requires.
•Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis – A theory proposing that experiencing empathy for someone in need produces an altruistic motive for helping.
•Evolutionary Psychology - An approach to psychology based on the principle of natural selection.
•Expectation States Theory – A theory that states that the development of group status is based on members’ expectations of others’ probable contributions to the achievement of group goals.
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•Implicit Personality Theory - Assumptions or naive belief systems people make about which personality traits and behaviors go together.
•Negative State Relief Model – A theory suggesting that for those in a bad mood, helping others may be a way to lift their own spirits if the perceived benefits for helping are high and the cost are low.
•Observational learning (social learning) - A theory that social behavior is primarily learned by observing and imitating the actions of others, and secondarily by being directly rewarded and punished for our own actions.
• Self-Perception Theory - The theory that we often infer our internal states, such as our attitudes, by observing our behavior.
•Self-Verification Theory - The process of seeking out and interpreting situations so as to confirm one’s self-concept.
•Social Comparison Theory - The theory that proposes that we evaluate our thoughts and actions by comparing them to those of others.
•Social Dominance Theory – A theory contending that societal groups can be organized in a power hierarchy in which the dominant groups enjoy a disproportionate share of the society’s assets and the subordinate groups receive most of its liabilities.
•Social Exchange Theory - The theory that proposes that we seek out and maintain those relationships in which the rewards exceed the costs.
•Social Learning Theory – A theory that social behavior is primarily learned by observing and imitating the actions of others, and secondarily by being directly reward and punished for our own actions.
•Social Identity Theory - A theory suggesting that people week to enhance their self-esteem by identifying with specific social groups and perceiving these groups as being better tan other groups.
•Social Impact Theory - The theory that the amount of social influence others have depends on their number, strength, and immediacy to those they are trying to influence.
•Social Penetration Theory - A theory that describes the development of close relationships in terms of increasing self-disclosure.
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•System Justification Theory - A theory proposing that members of disadvantaged groups often adopt belief endorsing the legitimacy and fairness of the unequal group status hierarchy in society.
•Theory of Planned Behavior - The theory that people’s decisions to engage in specific actions are determined by their attitudes toward the behavior, the relevant subjective norms, and their perceived behavioral control.
•Theory of Psychological Reactance - The theory that people believe they possess specific behavioral freedoms, and that they will react against and resist attempts to limit this sense of freedom.
•Threat-to-Self-Esteem Model – A theory stating that if receiving help contains negative self-messages, recipients are likely to feel threatened and respond negatively.
What is at the core of “Interpersonal Attraction?”
At the core of Interpersonal Attraction is the desire to approach other people for interaction.
How do our affiliation needs impact attraction?
Affiliation needs impact attraction because they allow more aptness to interact with others who are on the same level.
What factors influence Interpersonal Attraction?
Factors that influence Interpersonal Attraction are social comparison and social exchange.
What is intimacy?
Intimacy involves the ability to share that which is closest to your heart or your most innermost thoughts.
What creates parent-child attachment?
The ability to form a strong emotional bond helps and assist in creating a parent-child attachment. It is the base for all developing emotions.
How do friendships and romantic relationships form?
Friendships and relationships form by the usage of intimacy and interaction between others. Both need different facets for form but both need some form of intimacy and both are voluntary and mutually satisfying.
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Week 10
Describe the major theories within the field of social psychology.
See Above
Methods that are used for studying social psychology.
The major theories within the field of Social Psychology are:
#1 – Cognitive Dissonance Theory Assert that Rationalization shapes attitudes –
This theory affect a person’s attitude and play a part in acting out dissonance sometimes between the aspects which causes levels of uncomfortableness and a wavering of determination and reflects a change in attitude because of this. If an attitude or cognition causes discomfit then the conscious mind would enact a more comfortable state to relieve the stress and find a solution for comfort (consonance). Usually consonance will win out every time otherwise an increase of unhappiness, sadness would occur and eventually cause internal harm. Because of this several cognitions (thoughts, ideas) can be interchangeably considered at once and the process of changing attitudes or cognitions increases in momentum to achieve or restore consonance based on priorities by importance. Another part of the Cognitive Dissonance Theory is dissonance and it is the level of discomfort whether high or low and affects the importance of cognitions and the rate at which consonance is sought to correct dissonance. There are four ways to reduce dissonance and restore consonance: (1) Cancel the choice or cognition, (2) Make choice or cognition more attractive, (3) Decrease the attractiveness and (4) Reduce choice or cognition importance.
#2 – Cognitive Consistency Is Not A Universal Motive –
Based on Festinger’s Theory is the assumption that everyone has an equal desire to engage in cognitive consistent actions. Further after research this approach is more fully apt to describe individualist cultures than those with a collectivist orientation. Argued is that independence is geared toward individualist cultures and interdependency is socialized into the collectivist cultures.
#3 – Self-Perception Theory Contends That Behavior Causes Attitudes -
The Self-Perception Theory uses the process of knowing self and internally analyzing self-behavior and allows the attainment of knowledge of attitudes, beliefs and the ability to do a self-analysis. Because a self-analysis is able to be done the discovery of internal states allow picking up cues from behavior in certain situations, reactions to circumstances, behavioral patterns in different environments and if unable to do a self-analysis then it is like looking from the outside inwardly. Because of this ability to know and comprehend self it is very influential because of its simplicity of use and in understanding the true hidden part we keep from the world.
#4 - Theory of Planned Behavior Explains “Thought-Through” Actions –
Based on this theory people use logic and rationality in considering their behavior prior to acting and dual consequences that may follow. The reason attitudes cannot be better predictors of behavior is because other issues have to be considered. Further behavioral intentions are influenced less by general attitudes than by attitudes performing the specific behavior in question.
Describe research methods that are used for studying social psychology.
As cited from Psychology About.com:
http://psychology.about.com/od/socialpsychology/a/socialresearch.htm
Descriptive Research
The goal of descriptive research is to portray what already exists in a group or population. One example of this type of research would be an opinion poll to find which political candidate people plan to vote for in an upcoming election. Unlike causal and relational studies, descriptive studies cannot determine if there is a relationship between two variables.
Correlational Research
Social psychologists use correlational research to look for relationships between variables. Conducting surveys, directly observing behaviors, or compiling research from earlier studies are some of the methods used to gather data for correlational research.
While this type of study can help determine if two variables have a relationship, it does not allow researchers to determine if one variable causes changes in another variable.
Experimental Research
Experimental research is the key to uncovering causal relationships between variables. In experimental research, the experimenter randomly assigns participants to one of two groups: the control group and the experimental group. The control group receives no treatment and serves as a baseline. Researchers manipulate the levels of some independent variable in the experimental group and then measure the effects. Because researchers are able to control the independent variables, experimental research can be used to find causal relationships between variables.
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Describe research methods that are used for studying social psychology. (continued)
Naturalistic Research
Naturalistic observation is a research method commonly used by psychologists and other social scientists. This technique involves observing subjects in their natural environment. This type of research is often utilized in situations where conducting lab research is unrealistic, cost prohibitive or would unduly affect the subject's behavior.
Naturalistic observation differs from structured observation in that it involves looking at a behavior as it occurs in its natural setting with no attempts at intervention on the part of the researcher.
Participant Observation
As cited from SociologyAbout.com:
http://sociology.about.com/od/Research/a/Participant-Observation.htm
Participant Observation is a common way for sociologists to collect data and study society is to actually become a part of the group they are studying. This is called participant observation. During participant observation, two separate roles are played at the same time: subjective participant and objective observer. Sometimes, though not always, the group is aware that the sociologist is studying them.
The goal of participant observation is to gain a deep understanding and familiarity with a certain group of individuals. This is usually some sort of subculture group, such as a religious, occupational, or particular community group. To do this, the researcher usually lives within the group, becomes a part of the group, and lives as a group member for an extended period of time, allowing them access to the intimate details and goings on of the group.
Observational Research
As cited from Intropsych.com:
http://www.intropsych.com/ch01_psychology_and_science/observational_research.html
Observational research consists of systematic observation. The word systematic implies a sensible and replicable procedure for collecting data. Data might be collected with a video recording device or by administering a questionnaire or in any other way that can be adequately described for other scientists who wish to repeat the observations. No experiment is conducted. The researcher does not attempt to alter the world during the data collection phase. The data are analyzed, and researchers look for interesting or important patterns.
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Describe research methods that are used for studying social psychology. (continued)
What is observational research?
In studies of children, observational techniques are highly developed. Experiments that might alter children's lives would raise ethical problems, but observational techniques can be done without disturbance. Following are examples of different observational techniques, illustrated in each case with an example from developmental psychology.
Archival Research
As cited from SociologyAbout.com:
http://www.psychwiki.com/wiki/What_is_archival_research%3F
Archival Research can be defined as the study of existing data. The existing data is collected to answer research questions. Existing data sources may include statistical records, survey archives, and written records.
Survey Methodology
As cited from Wikipedia.org:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Survey_methodology
In statistics, survey methodology is the field that studies the sampling of individuals from a population with a view towards making statistical inferences about the population using the sample. Polls about public opinion, such as political beliefs, are reported in the news media in democracies. Other types of survey are used for scientific purposes. Surveys provide important information for all kinds of research fields, e.g., marketing research, psychology, health professionals and sociology.[1] A survey may focus on different topics such as preferences (e.g., for a presidential candidate), behavior (smoking and drinking behavior), or factual information (e.g., income), depending on its purpose. Since survey research is always based on a sample of the population, the success of the research is dependent on the representativeness of the population of concern (see also sampling (statistics) and survey sampling).
Survey methodology seeks to identify principles about the design, collection, processing, and analysis of surveys in connection to the cost and quality of survey estimates. It focuses on improving quality within cost constraints, or alternatively, reducing costs for a fixed level of quality. Survey methodology is both a scientific field and a profession. Part of the task of a survey methodologist is making a large set of decisions about thousands of individual features of a survey in order to improve it.
What is aggression and what types are there?
Aggression is a behavioral pattern that expresses excessive hostility to harm a person, oneself or an object.
Types of aggression are:
Instrumental Aggression – The intentional use of harmful behavior so that one can achieve some other goal.
Hostile Aggression – The intentional use of harmful behavior in which the goal is simply to cause injury or death to the victim.
Indirect Aggression – Is a form of aggressive manipulation involving attempts to harm another person without face-to-face encounters.
How is aggression learned?
Aggression is leaned by emulating examples of behavioral activities portrayed as masculine, dominant and accepted as a norm that are violent and disruptive.
How does culture impact aggression?
Culture impacts aggression by instilling values – if these values are violent and aggressive than those will be instilled as a social norm.
What causes sexual aggression?
Sexual aggression is probably caused by sexual exploitation during youth and devastating consequences that follow. Also, maybe due to continual abuse which probably instills this behavioral trait as a pattern of sexual deviancy as normal.
How can we reduce aggression?
We can reduce aggression by trying to reduce the stimuli that causes a trigger effect. Therefore, we reduce the anger that is necessary to fuel aggressive behavioral patterns to alter behavior. Also, by providing punishment.
What motivates us to help?
What motivates us to help is the ability to provide empathy and see a situation that needs correcting and needs our assistance to do so.
Factors that influence helping behavior are:
Ability to provide empathy
Knowledge Know-How
Sympathetic
Experience
Compassion
Lack of fear
Tenacity
Levelheadedness
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